Mids SAMON Mat meaning: 'the month of Summer'

Mids: May 1 - May 15, 2009 Atenoux: May 16 - May 30, 2009

Mids DVMAN Anm meaning: 'the World'

Mids: May 31 - June 14, 2009 Atenoux: June 15 - June 28, 2009

Mids RIVROS Mat meaning: 'the New King'

Mids: June 29 - July 13, 2009 Atenoux: July 14 - July 28, 2009

Mids ANAGANTIOS Anm meaning: 'the Unwonted month'

Mids: July 29 - Aug 12, 2009 Atenoux: Aug 13 - Aug 26, 2009

Mids OGRON Mat meaning: 'the Colder month'

Mids: Aug 27 - Sept 10, 2009 Atenoux: Sept 11 - Sept 25, 2009

Mids CVTIOS Mat meaning: 'the Hidden month'

Mids: Sept 26 - Oct 10, 2009 Atenoux: Oct 11 - Oct 25, 2009

Mids CIALLOS Mat meaning: 'Sense'

Mids: Oct 26 - Nov 9, 2009 Atenoux: Nov 10 - Nov 24, 2009

Mids GIAMMON Anm meaning: 'the month of Winter'

Mids: Nov 25 - Dec 9, 2009 Atenoux: Dec 10 - Dec 23, 2009

Mids SEMIVISON Mat meaning: 'the Source'

Mids: Dec 24 - Jan 7, 2010 Atenoux: Jan 8 - Jan 22, 2010

Mids EQVOS Anm meaning: 'the Horse'

Mids: Jan 23 - Feb 6, 2010 Atenoux: Feb 7 - Feb 20, 2010

Mids ELEMBIVOS Anm meaning: 'Nuturing Life'

Mids: Feb 21 - Mar 7, 2010 Atenoux: Mar 8 - Mar 21, 2010

Mids AEDRINI Mat meaning: 'the Warmer month'

Mids: Mar 22 - Apr 5, 2010 Atenoux: Apr 6 - Apr 20, 2010

Mids CANTLOS Anm meaning: 'the month of Song'

Mids: Apr 21 - May 5, 2010 Atenoux: May 6 - May 19, 2010

The Celtic calendar is a symbol of Heroic Age independence, a timekeeping masterpiece relating lunar, solar and planetary cycles as a kind of model of the universe. It can even be argued that the calendar was the envy of Rome, because Caesar after his many years in Gaul called for Roman calendar reform. Through the Celtic language of its inscription is also a cultural link to Britain and Ireland in this period, and opens the possibility to compare the seasonal festivities across the Celtic speaking world and discover any cultural continuity.

This calendar marks off many time periods, known either from historical reports of the era or from the inscription itself. These are detailed in 'The Pleaides Cycle' and 'The Coligny Tablet' sections, from the menu. There is a diurnal cycle with the daily period commencing at sunset; monthly cycles, with each lunation divided in two by an 'atenoux' notation; cycles of five years, the period inscribed onto the bronze tablet discovered at Coligny; and there is a thirty year age marked by the passage of Saturn, the outermost visible planet, of which the most recent occurrence was in 2002. The way that the astronomical cycles embedded in the calendar maintain accuracy over time is quite similar to the way Celtic knotwork resolves itself into a satisfying whole.

But the astronomical genius of the calendar did not prevent it from being used for the principal period for the well being of society - vital in the planning for agriculture, war, law and ceremony: the solar year.

The solar year is a most familiar period to us today, with the Celtic seasonal feasts set onto the yearly calendar in a regular three monthly arrangement. This is a good place to familiarise ourselves with the Celtic calendar of Gaul. And because the Celtic language family links Ireland, Britain and Gaul, we can look at the language on the Gaulish calendar with the aid of known words from Ireland and Britain for clues in the inscribed words for how the year was arranged, named and celebrated.

The two-fold Celtic Year

The first month of the year is called Samon. This is at once identifiable in Celtic language as containing the 'summer' stem word, sam-: Irish names the summer season Samhradh, with older forms 'samrad' or simply 'sam'. The first month of summer in Old Irish was called Cétam and Cétemain formed from cét-Soman, meaning summer's first month. Cormac's Glossary records it being formed from the combination cét-sam-sín: 'the first weather movement of summer'.

The seventh month of the year is called Giammon. This is also at once identifiable in Celtic language as containing the 'winter' stem word gaim-: Irish names the winter season Geimhreadh, with older forms 'gaimred' or 'gamred'; Welsh names winter Gaeaf, with the older form 'gaem'.

The months Samon and Giammon head the two halves of the year on the calendar, and in Celtic language they resolve as 'Summer' and 'Winter' - samon and giammon in Gaulish, samradh and geamheadh in Irish, haf and gaeaf in Welsh. On this basis, Samon on the Gregorian calendar is in May, while Giammon is in November.

This, too, was the arrangement of the Irish year that Cú Chulaind explains to Loeg in Tochmarc Emer, an Irish hero-tale of the eleventh century: "For two divisions were formerly on the year, namely, summer from Beltaine the first of May, and winter from Samuin to Beltaine.".

The fifth month Ogronnos is cognate with Welsh 'oer' and Irish 'fuar', meaning 'cold'. The fifth month counting May as the start brings us to September on the Gregorian calendar, which is when the autumnal equinox falls. This is a most appropriate month to named 'cold'.

By using Celtic language as the basis for understanding the month names, an insight into the passage of the year may be obtained. What follows is a list of the months, noting Celtic language words upon which the translation is made, plus the corresponding month on the Gregorian calendar.

Samon - the Summer
The opening of summer, whose name derives from samo-, 'summer': in Irish, cét-Soman, 'the first month of summer': the opening of summer in May at the head of Samrad.
Duman - the World
The month of the summer solstice, whose name derives from Gaulish dumno-, 'the world': in Irish, domhan, 'the universe': the bright long days in June associated with the longest days.
Riuros - the new King
The month of the high summer, whose name derives from Gaulish rix- and Irish and Welsh ri, 'king' combined to ur meaning 'fresh, new': the hot days of July.
Anagantios - Unwonted
The month opening the autumnal period, whose name relates to Irish ingantach, formed from ana + gant 'not wonted': The month of August commencing the harvest.
Ogronnos - Colder
The month of the autumnal equinox, whose name derives from ogro- 'cold', in Irish, fuar and Welsh oer: the shortening days of September at the start of the colder part of the year.
Cutios - Hidden
The last month of the Celtic summer, whose name relates to Welsh cuddio, 'hidden': October, the fore-winter month.
Giammon - the Winter
The opening of winter, whose name derives from gaimo-, 'winter': in Irish, gaimred, geamhreadh 'the season of winter': the opening of winter in November at the head of Gamred.
Semiuisonna - the Source
The month of the winter solstice, whose name relates to sem- 'flowing', combined to uis 'water': in Irish, Uisnech, 'the navel of Ireland': the cold days in December associated with the shortest days.
Equos - Horse
The month of deep winter, whose name derives from ek-vos, 'horse' related to Irish Echu: the cold days of January.
Elembiuos - Nurturing Life
The month opening the spring period, whose name relates to Irish ailim 'nurture', combined with the stem bivo-s 'life': The month of February commencing the lambing season.
Aedrini - Warmer
The month of the vernal equinox, whose name relates to Irish Aedh, 'a flame of fire': the lengthening days of March at the start of the warmer part of the year.
Cantlos - Songs
The last month of the Celtic winter, whose name derived from cantla, 'to sing', in Welsh and Irish 'canu': April, the month of birdsong.

The Fire Feasts and the Celtic Year

Having established a meaningful understanding of the month names a comparison to the Celtic fire feasts best known from Ireland may be made, and in doing so see whether a cultural connection may be discerned across the Celtic language speaking world.

Beltaine - the Summer Fire
The opening of summer in May, originally named Cétam and Cétemain formed from cét-Soman, meaning summer's first month. The fires of Belinos, or the Bright fires, cattle were driven around or between the Beltaine fires for protection the start of the pasturing season. At the head of Samrad, this fire feast is identified with the month Samon. An event incribed as 'trinox samoni' is found on Samon months on the Coligny calendar, which may relate to a three day feast in this month. In the Mabinogion of Pwyll, the prince of Dyfed climbs the Gorsedd Arberth three nights in succession at his encounter with Rhiannon, who produced their son who became Pryderi five years later at Calan Mai. Samon's trinox samoni translates to 'three day feast of summer', and may be related to the fire feast of Beltaine in Ireland, such that Samon the first month of the calendar relates to the first fire held at Uisnech.

Lughnasa - the High Summer Fire
At the high summer in August, the Lughnasadh Games were appointed as a yearly commemoration of Taillte, to whom Lúgh Lámhfada was fostered and trained till he was fit to bear arms; the games of the Fair of Taillte commenced a fortnight before Lúghnasadh, and continued a fortnight after it. The mid July to mid August period corresponds to the the months Riuros and Anagantios, and in the month of 'the New King' - a suitable description for Lugos - is found the inscription 'Devor Lug Rivros', which translates as 'Divine Lugos'. Extending to the 'Unwonted' month of Anagantios, Riuros's devor lug rivros may be related to the fire feast of Lughnasa in Ireland.

Samhain - the Fire at the End of Summer
The completion of summer is commemorated with Samhain, whose name is a compound of sam 'summer' and fuin 'end'. The focus of the name is on summer and its competion, but placed at the head of winter, geamreadh, this relates to the Giammon month. The Feis of Tara, an assembly held at Tara, was held 'every third year, for the fulfilment of laws and rules, three days before Samhain and three days thereafter, the high-spirited company pass in constant feasting, a week.' Interestingly, the word assembly samhuil may be from which the name Samhain derives, and the feast may gather both concepts of summer's end and the assembly.

Imbolg - the Spring Fire
The February fire feast asscociated with Celtic tripartite goddess, Brigit daughter of the Dagda, Imbolc 'washing' also goes by the name Oimelc 'ewe's milk'. The month Elembiuos on the Gaulish calendar refers to the nurturing of new life, and may relate to the lambing season in the way Emer tells Cú Chulaind that 'Oimell, the beginning of spring...is the time when the sheep come out and are milked' in the eleventh century Tochmarc Emer.

Samon and the Celtic new year

A May start to the Irish year is provided in Tochmarc Emer from the eleventh century. We have an even more positively worded record in Tóraigheacht an Ghiolla Dheacair, a sixteenth century Irish manuscript, which reads, "For this was the manner in which the Fena used to spend their time. They divided the year into two parts. During the first half, namely, from Bealtaine to Samhain, they hunted each day with their dogs; and during the second half, namely from Samhain to Bealtaine, there was not a chief or a great lord or a keeper of a house of hospitality in the whole country that had not nine of the Fena quartered on him during the winter half of the year."

How does the identification of Samon with May respond to the claim that Samhain begins the Irish year and that Samhain corresponds to Samon?

Such an arrangement is precisely six-months off-set to the presentation above, including the strong correlation of Irish fire feasts with the months of Samon, Riuros/Anagantios, Giammon and Elembivos. However, a Samhain start to the Irish and Gaulish calendars is widely held, and is therefore addressed here.

The question arises because since the 1886 Hibbert Lectures presented by Sir John Rhys, Samhain has been widely held to commence the traditional Irish year. Neither O'Donovan or Bulfinch earlier in the nineteenth century were able to identify the start of the 'Pagan Irish Year' and Rhys was held to have discovered the identification of Samhain as the start. In the early twentieth century this was enthusiastically taken up by Squire and even Frazer wrote 'we may with some probability infer that they reckoned their year from Hallowe'en rather than Beltane.'

Consistent with this, at the discovery of the Coligny calendar in 1897, Samon was very quickly identified with Samhain. And because Samon without any doubt commences the Coligny calendar, this reinforced the idea that Samhain was the start of the Irish year. Moreover, an event recorded in Samon months of the calendar, Trinox samoni was identified with the actual fire feast of Samhain, based on phonetic similarity to the Old Irish 'trenae samhna' and taken to mean the 'three nights of Samhain'. There seemed no reason to question the relationship. The concepts became intertwined and by the later twentieth century, Piggot simply wrote, 'Samain marked the end of one year and the beginning of the next.'

Averting the direct relationships between Samon and samhradh and Giammon with geamhreadh, the concept of ellipsus has been introduced to explain why neither Samon nor Giammon translate to 'end of summer' (Samhain is a compound of sam + fuin) or 'end of winter' (which should be a compound of gam + fuin).

But the concept of Samhain marking the new year was in the first place an invention. Sir John Rhys said of Cormack's Glossary, 'I should propose to mend the original' and made Fogamur out to be not just the last month of the autumn, but the last month of the year, 'so that the first day of the first month of winter was also the first day of the year.' To give his idea an historical basis he drew upon Caesar's description of the Gauls, claiming 'The Celts reckoned Dis the father of all, and regarded darkness and death as taking precedence over light and life ; so in their computation of time they began with night and winter, and not with daylight and summer' and this, he wrote, 'is probably the key to reckoning years as winters'.

Rhys mis-quoted Caesar. What Caesar actually said was 'The Gauls claim all to be descended from Father Dis, declaring that this is the tradition preserved by the Druids. For this reason they measure periods of time not by days but by nights; and in celebrating birthdays, the first of the month, and new year's day, they go on the principle that the day begins at night'.

Even if the lectures given by Sir John Rhys are discounted, and the similarities between 'Samon' with 'Samhain' and the 'trinox samoni' with 'trenae samhna' relied on, the simple relationship of Samon to Samhradh and cét-Soman in conjunction with that of Giammon to Geamhreadh, must be accounted for.

We have the Irish literature of Tochmarch Emer from the eleventh century, and Giolla Dacker and his Horse from the sixteenth century, in which the first half of the year is positively identified as commencing with Beltaine.

A summer beginning for the year is consistent with the significant events associated with Beltaine. This date commemorated the landing of the first invaders of Ireland, the sons of Partholan, on which day was lit the first fire, that of Uisnech. The arrival of the Tuatha de Danaan, beginning life in a new land was at Beltaine. The young heroes of Celtic myth such as Pryderi were born at Beltaine, and Finn gained druidic inspiration after eating of the Salmon of Knowledge at Beltaine.

None of this diminishes Samhain, a time of profound prophesy. In the fifth century, King Dathi commemorated Beltaine 'with a scale of splendour never before equalled' as 'a conference with all the great chiefs and leaders of the nation'. This was in response to powerful prophetic declarations by Doghra, chief Druid, at the previous Samhain where Dathi was announced to be the future king of Ireland and Alba. The Beltaine conference was the launch of his summer campaigns that took him as far as the Alps.

What is notable about Beltaine is that it was the first Celtic feast to be usurped by Christianity. St Patrick described the Beltaine feast as 'an idolatrous ceremony, with manifold incantations and magical contrivances when the Druids, singers, prophets had been summoned to Laoghaire at Tara'. Dathi's conference and Patricks usurping of Beltaine occurred within decades of each other, a testament to the profound changes brought on by Christianity.

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The Pleiades Cycle

"When at intervals of thirty years the star of Cronus enters the sign of the Bull" - Plutarch, De Facie, c.AD79.

The Pleiades Cycle section introduces the ancient sources that describe the Celtic calendar system. The first century historians Pliny the Elder and Plutarch, together with Diodorus and Julius Caesar from the first century BC all provide key information to the workings of the Celtic calendar.

The stars of the distinctive cluster in the constellation of Taurus anciently had their heliacal rise in May and signalled the beginning of summer across Europe. This section provides an insight to their significance to the Celtic calendar system, as shown by the ancient historical sources.

The Coligny Tablet

Samon equates to Samhradh, from *samo- for 'summer'. Giammon equates to Geimhreadh, from *gaimo- for 'winter'.

The Coligny Tablet section introduces the Celtic calendar inscription, called the 'Coligny Calendar' or the 'Gaulish Calendar' which dates to the time of Caesar's conquest of Gaul. The tablet reveals a sophisticated calendar system comprised of months corresponding to lunations, years divided into summer and winter, five year cycles where the lunar and solar cycles are kept aligned, and a thirty year age.

The historical sources are consistent with and inform our understanding of the calendar tablet. The Gaulish names for the months at the head of the two great seasons on the tablet are found retained in Irish and Welsh seasonal and month names, and the seasons explained in later Celtic myth, showing the calendar to represent the system used across the Celtic world.

SAMHRADH - SAMON - SUMMER		GEIMHREADH - GIAMMON - WINTER
SAMON (~May)	"Summer" (samo-, samrad)	GIAMMON (~November)	"Winter" (gaimo-, gaimred)
DUMAN (~June)	"The World" (dumno -, doman)	SEMIUISONNA (~December)	"The Source" (sem+uis)
RIUROS (~July)	"The King" (rix, ri + úr)	EQUOS (~January)	"Horse" (ekvos, echu)
ANAGANTIOS (~August)	"Unwonted" (an+gant, ingantach)	ELEMBIUOS (~February)	"Nurturing" (ailim+*bivo-s)
OGRONNOS (~September)	"Coldness" (ogro-)	AEDRINI (~March)	"Warmth" (aedh)
CUTIOS (~October)	"Hidden" (cuddio)	CANTLOS (~April)	"Exhalting" (cantla, canu)

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